The Early Republic
Overview:
The United States was the first modern nation to win independence through a successful revolution against colonial rule. It set a precedent that was followed in the nineteenth century by nations across Latin America, and in the twentieth century by nations in Asia and Africa. Like those other countries, the United States faced severe political, economic, and foreign policy problems after achieving independence.
In these chapters you will learn about how the United States addressed those problems and established a stable political and economic system. You will learn about the creation of new state governments and a new federal government based on the principles of popular sovereignty, rule of law, and legislation by elected representatives. You will also learn about the internal difficulties besetting the new republic, such as financing the war, the threat of a military coup, a hard-hitting economic depression, and popular demands for tax relief. In addition, you will read about efforts to expand freedom of religion, to increase women's educational opportunities, and to address the problem of slavery.
Other important topics include the drafting and ratification of the Constitution; the adoption of a bill of rights protecting the rights of the individual against the power of the central government; the enactment of a financial program that secured the government's credit and stimulated the economy; and the creation of the first political parties to involve the voting population in national politics.
In addition, you will learn about the purchase of Louisiana Territory from France; British and French interference with American shipping; the causes, fighting, and consequences of the War of 1812.
Summary:
The United States was the first modern nation to achieve independence through a successful revolution against colonial rule. It faced severe economic and foreign policy problems. A huge debt remained from the Revolution; paper money issued during and after the war was worthless; and Britain and Spain occupied territory claimed by the United States
The new nation lacked the machinery of government. It consisted of nothing more than 75 post offices, a large debt, a small number of unpaid clerks, and an army consisting of just 672 soldiers. There was no federal court system, no navy, and no system for collecting taxes. Congress enacted a tariff to raise revenue; created departments of state, treasury and war; and organized a federal judicial system.
To strengthen popular support for the new government, Congress approved a Bill of Rights in the form of ten amendments to the Constitution protecting the rights of the individual against the power of the central government.
The Constitution provided only a broad outline of the office and powers of the president, and it was up to the first president, George Washington, to establish many precedents. He modeled the executive branch along the lines of a general's staff. He asserted the power to dismiss presidential appointees without the Senate's permission. He negotiated treaties and then sent them to the Senate for ratification.
To secure the nation's credit, the first Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton, had the federal government assume the entire indebtedness of the federal government and the states. To issue currency, collect taxes, hold government funds, regulate private banks, and make loans, he recommended that the federal government establish a Bank of the United States . His other proposals to stimulate manufacturing through high tariffs, bounties, encouragement of immigration, and federal aid for roads were defeated.
By 1796, the United States had produced the world's first modern political parties. Opposition to Hamilton 's plans intensified during the closing years of Washington 's first term. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison feared that Hamilton wanted to model American society along the lines of monarchical England . Partisan divisions deepened in response to the French Revolution and the wars between France and Britain . The Jeffersonians supported the French; the Hamiltonians, the British. President Washington supported a policy of neutrality.
During 1793 and 1794, Washington 's administration confronted a French effort to entangle America in its war with England (the Genet Affair), armed rebellion in western Pennsylvania (the Whiskey Rebellion), conflicts with Indians, and the threat of war with Britain . In 1796, Washington was able to retire gracefully. He had suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion, defeated an Indian confederacy in the Ohio country, and negotiated Britain out of its western forts. In a Farewell Address, he called on Americans to avoid political partisanship and entangling alliances with foreign nations.
Deteriorating relations with France during the presidency of John Adams resulted in an undeclared naval war and prompted Federalists in Congress to enact the infamous Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts were designed to silence dissent and weaken support for the Jeffersonian Republicans, prompting Jefferson and Madison to draft the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions that advanced the idea that states had the power to declare acts of Congress null and void.
Thomas Jefferson was convinced that the Federalists had threatened republican government by levying oppressive taxes, stretching the provisions of the Constitution, and subverting civil liberties. As president, he slashed army and navy expenditures and eliminated most federal taxes. To encourage land ownership, he persuaded Congress to cut the price of public lands. He also moved Congress to reduce the residence requirement for citizenship, and freed all people imprisoned under the Sedition Act and refunded their fines.
It was during Jefferson 's presidency that the Supreme Court asserted the power of judicial supremacy and judicial review and became a vigorous and equal third branch of government. The acquisition of Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 doubled the country's size.
During Jefferson's second term the United States became embroiled in the Napoleonic wars, as Britain and France interfered with American shipping. To assert America 's neutral rights, Congress adopted an embargo prohibiting American trade with foreign countries. An unpopular and costly failure, the embargo provoked widespread smuggling.
By 1812, many Americans believed that only war with Britain could preserve Americans neutral rights and national honor. American grievances included interference with American trade, impressment of thousands of American sailors, and incitement of Indian attacks.
The War of 1812 was crucial to the future of the United States . It effectively destroyed Indians' ability to resist American expansion. It allowed the United States to solidify its control over the lower Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico . It encouraged New England merchants to invest in textile factories. It also ended America 's brief experiment with a two party political system, as the Federalists were branded as traitors for failing to support the war.
Following the War of 1812, a spirit of nationalism pervaded the nation, evident in the creation of a second Bank of the United States ; enactment of a tariff to protect industry, and a series of Supreme Court decisions strengthening the power of the central government. The United States acquired Florida from Spain , convinced Russian and Spain to relinquish their claims to the Oregon country, and delivered a strong warning, in the Monroe Doctrine, that European powers were not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere .
A severe economic depression, the Panic of 1819, and a bitter controversy over slavery in Missouri in 1819 and 1820, provoked growing political divisions and a deepening sectional split between North and South.
Our Online Textbook
The Critical Period
The Constitution & The Bill of Rights
The Federalist Era
The Jeffersonian Era
The Era of Good Feelings
The Critical Period
Having won the Revolutionary war and having negotiated a favorable peace settlement, the Americans still had to establish stable governments. Between 1776 and 1789 a variety of efforts were made to realize the nation's republican ideals. New state governments were established in most states, expanding voting and officeholding rights. Lawmakers let citizens decide which churches to support with their tax monies. Several states adopted bills of rights guaranteeing freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, as well as trial by jury. Western lands were opened to settlement. Educational opportunities for women increased. Most northern states either abolished slavery or adopted a gradual emancipation plan, while some southern states made it easier for slaveowners to manumit individual slaves. Concern for the new nation's political stability led leading revolutionary leaders to draft a new Constitution in 1787, which worked out compromises between large and small states and between northern and southern states.
The Constitution & The Bill of Rights
Between 1776 and 1789 a variety of efforts were made to realize the nation's republican ideals. New state governments were established in most states, expanding voting and officeholding rights. Lawmakers let citizens decide which churches to support with their tax monies. Several states adopted bills of rights guaranteeing freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, as well as trial by jury. Western lands were opened to settlement. Educational opportunities for women increased. Most northern states either abolished slavery or adopted a gradual emancipation plan, while some southern states made it easier for slaveowners to manumit individual slaves.
Concern for the new nation's political stability led leading revolutionary leaders to draft a new Constitution in 1787, which worked out compromises between large and small states and between northern and southern states. The federal system balanced power between the national government and the state governments; within the national government, power was divided among three separate branches in a system of checks and balances.
In addition to listing the powers of the national government-which include the power to collect taxes, regulate trade, and declare war-the Constitution enumerates the powers forbidden to the states and to Congress; and the procedures for electing and appointing government officials as well as procedures for amending the document.
The Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, was ratified in 1791. These amendments, which were originally intended to protect individual liberties from the power of the central government, guarantee freedom of speech, the press, religion, petition, and assembly; and specify the rights of the accused in criminal and civil cases.
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The Federalist Era
In 1789, it was an open question whether the Constitution was a workable plan of government. It was unclear whether the new nation could establish a strong national government, a vigorous economy, or win the respect of foreign nations. For a decade, the new nation battled threats to its existence, including serious disagreements over domestic and foreign policy and foreign interference with American shipping and commerce.
During the first 12 years under the new Constitution, the Federalists established a strong and vigorous national government. Alexander Hamilton's economic program attracted foreign investment and stimulated economic growth. The creation of political parties was an unexpected development that involved the voting population in politics. Presidents George Washington and John Adams succeeded in keeping the nation free from foreign entanglements during the nation's first crucial years. Despite bitter party battles, threats of secession, and foreign interference with American shipping and commerce, the new nation had overcome every obstacle it had faced.
The Jeffersonian Era
As president, Thomas Jefferson sought to implement his Republican principles, including a frugal, limited government; respect for states' rights, and encouragement for agriculture. He cut military expenditures, paid off the public debt, and repealed many taxes. His most important act was the purchase of Louisiana Territory, which nearly doubled the size of the nation.
Meanwhile, the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review, which enables the courts to review the constitutionality of federal laws and invalidate acts of Congress when they conflict with the Constitution.
The Jeffersonian era was marked by severe foreign policy challenges, including harassment of American shipping by North African pirates and by the British and French. In an attempt to stave off war with Britain and France, the United States attempted various forms of economic coercion. But in 1812--to protect American shipping and seamen, clear westerns lands of Indians, and preserve national honor—the county once again waged war with Britain, fighting the world's strongest power to a stalemate.
The Era of Good Feelings
The Era of Good Feelings was a period of dramatic growth and intense nationalism. The spirit of nationalism was apparent in Supreme Court decisions that established the supremacy of the federal government and expanded the powers of Congress. American interest and power in foreign policy was especially apparent in the Monroe Doctrine. Industrial development enhanced national self-sufficiency and united the nation with improved roads, canals, and river transportation.
Forces for division were also at work. The financial Panic of 1819 led to the emergence of new political parties. The Missouri Crisis contributed to a growing sectional split between North and South.
Annotated Primary Source Documents
The Constitution
The Articles of Confederation , 1780, by Edmund Pendleton
The Critical Period and Shays' Rebellion , 1786, by James Bowdoin
Debates Within the Constitutional Convention , by Pierce Butler
The Three-Fifth Compromise
Fugitive Slaves and the Constitution , by Pierce Butler
Slavery and the Constitution , 1789, by George Clymer
Ratification Debates , 1787, by Edmund Pendleton
My opinion of the energetic wants of the federal government are well known," by George Washington
Ratification Debates , 1788, by John Hancock
Ratification Debates , 1788, by Henry Knox
Ratification Debates , 1788, by Walter Stewart
Ratification Debates , 1788, by George Washington
The Federalist Era
"Feelings not unlike those of a culprit...going to the place of his execution"
George Washington to Henry Knox, April 1, 1789
The New Republic , 1789, by Mercy Otis Warren
Postmaster's First Report , 1790, by Samuel Osgood
Roger Sherman to Governor Samuel Huntington , 1790, by Roger Sherman
Thomas Jefferson to Gouverneur Morris , 1790, by Thomas Jefferson
Report on Manufactures , 1791, by Alexander Hamilton
George Washington to Gouverneur Morris , 1793, by George Washington
Haitian Revolution , 1802, by Charles Victor Emmanuel LeClerc
The Citizen Genet Affair , 1796, by Thomas Jefferson
The Whiskey Rebellion , 1794, by U.S. Congress
The Whiskey Rebellion , 1795, by William Paterson
John Jay to Sally Jay , 1794, by John Jay
James Monroe to John Jay , 1795, by James Monroe
Washington's Farewell Address , 1796, by George Washington
Charles Carroll to James McHenry , 1796, by Charles Carroll
Fulton on Free Trade , 1798, by Robert Fulton
The Quasi-War with France and the XYZ Affair , 1798, by John Jay
Alien and Sedition Acts , 1799, by Alexander Addison
Thomas Jefferson to John Eppes , 1799, by Thomas Jefferson
Washington on Democratic Politics , 1799, by George Washington
Jeffersonian Era
"If Jefferson and Burr come with equal votes...the former ought to be preferred," 1800, by Alexander Hamilton
Elizur Goodrich to Stephen Twining , 1801, by Elizur Goodrich
John Adams on Alexander Hamilton , 1805, by John Adams
Jefferson and the French Revolution , 1811, by Thomas Jefferson
The Jeffersonians in Power , 1801, by Elias Boudinot
Judicial Review , 1823, by John Marshall
Louisiana, Expansion, and Disunionist Conspiracies , 1803, by Thomas Jefferson
Louisiana , 1804, by Pierre Derbigney
Lewis & Clark Expedition , 1805, by Meriwether Lewis
Burr's Trial , 1807, by John Adams
Slavery and Race in Jeffersonian America , 1801, by John Adams
Madison on the Slave Trade , 1803, by James Madison
William Few to Edward Telfair , 1804, by William Few
John Quincy Adams to Uriah Tracy , 1804, by John Quincy Adams
Impressment , 1800, by John Marshall
James Madison to David M. Erskine , 1807, by James Madison
The Clamor for War with Britain , 1807, by John Adams
The Embargo of 1807 , 1808?, by Thomas Jefferson
Madison Becomes President , 1809, by John Adams
The Road to War , 1812, by William Shaler
The "War Hawks" , 1812, by J.C. Jones
The War of 1812 , 1812, by Benjamin Tallmadge
The Battle of New Orleans , 1814, by Ephraim Hubbard Foster
The Hartford Convention , 1815, by James Monroe
The War of 1812 , 1815
The Treaty of Ghent , 1815, by James Monroe
The War of 1812 and Slavery , 1815, by John Quincy Adams
Jefferson Digital Archives
http://etext.virginia.edu/jefferson/texts/
More than 1,700 original documents relating to Thomas Jefferson
eXplorations
Our "doing history" modules
The Duel: Aaron Burr & Alexander Hamilton
Classroom Handouts
- Toward Revolution
- Religion, Race, and Gender in Revolutionary America
- Impact of the Revolution
- Conflict over Ratifying the Constitution
- Federalists and Jeffersonians
- War of 1812
Films
Documentaries:
Lewis and Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery (1997)
A two-part documentary directed by Ken Burns that examines the expedition of Meriweather Lewis and William Clark and American society in the early 19th century.
A More Perfect Union, a 1990 recreation of the Constitutional Convention shown on PBS.
Feature Films:
The Buccaneers (1938, 1958) A fanciful tale of pirate Jean Lafitte joining forces with General Andrew Jackson to defeat the British at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812.Danton
Polish director Andrzej Wajda's drama depicts the battle of wills and ideas between the leaders of the French Revolution.
The Fighting Kentuckian (1949) In Alabama in 1818, Kentucky militiaman John Breen, played by John Wayne falls in love with a French exile and discovers a plot to steal the land her fellow exiles plan to settle on.
John Paul Jones (1959) Hollywood biopic about the American naval hero of the War of 1812.
Old Ironsides (1926) The story of the famous War of 1812 battleship.
A Tale of Two Cities
Charles Dickens's account of the era of the French Revolution has been filmed many times. A 1935 version starring Ronald Colman won several Academy Award nomination. A 1958 English version starred Dirk Bogarde. A 1980 version featured Chris Sarandon.
Quiz
Test your knowledge about the early republic.
Quiz about the Jeffersonian Era